Hercules enters Olympus: Legend states Herculaneum was founded by Hercules in 1243 BC while he led oxen captured from the 3-headed giant Geryon to King Eurystheus competing the 10th of his 12 Labors.

However, historic analysis suggests that Herculaneum was founded by the Oscans or the Etruscans in the 7th c. BC, conquered by the Samnites in the 5th century BC.

Herculaneum was buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 A.D. The volcanic cone stands about 3,280 ft. high and the crater is 4.5 miles from Herculaneum.

Herculaneum, known as Ercolano to Italians, at the time of the eruption was a seaside resort that catered to wealthier Romans.

Entry to the ancient city of Herculaneum. Excavations have not revealed ceramic material prior to 4th century B.C. At the time of the eruption, Herculaneum had about 4,000 inhabitants.

View of Herculaneum from northeast corner looking south and southwest.

From the northeast corner of ancient Herculaneum looking northwest and west.

Casa d'Argo peristyle (a row of columns surrounding a space within a building such as a court or internal garden or edging a veranda or porch).

Casa dell Albergo: In the atrium, a marble edged impluvium pool with the remains of the base of a puteal. A puteal is a classical wellhead built around a water well’s access opening.

Impluvium Pool: the impluvium is a sunken part of the atrium in a Greek or Roman house and was designed to carry away the rainwater coming through the compluvium (an opening) in the roof.

Casa dello Scheletro - the vestibule is paved with this black mosaic bordered with a white double band and decorated with three parallel rows of triangle of palombino marble.

Casa dell Scheletro was named from a skeleton discovered in a room on the upper floor.

Casa della Schletro - mosaic laraium - a shrine to the guardian spirits of a Roman household where family members performed daily rituals to guarantee the protection of these domestic spirits.

The most significant of the domestic spirits were the “lares,” which were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. They may have been hero ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, and/or fruitfulness.

Casa Dello Scheletro wall painting above the lararium.

Casa dello Scheletro wall basso-relievo possibly the Greek goddess of victory Nike (the Romans called her Victoria).

Casa dello Scheletro: Apsed rear wall of the large hall contains a candelabrum (center) apexed by a front facing peacock with two facing tritons decorating the Ionic columns on its left and right.

The candelabrum also has a bundle of weapons hanging around its middle.

Thermopolium located on the street Cardo III, Inferiore, Insula II, no. 6. The marble counter incorporates dolia jars used to hold food and drink for this ancient version of a fast food restaurant.

Casa di Galba - built 2nd c. BC: Even after, possibly 2,520 years of use and abuse, these broken marble columns, for me, remain a vision of elegance and beauty.

Casa di Galba: Cross-shaped pool with marble.

Palaestra of the Baths of the Forum, men's section. The palaestra essentially consisted of a rectangular court surrounded by colonnades with adjoining rooms.

During the Roman Imperial period the palaestra was often combined with, or joined to, a bath.

Baths of the Forum: Apodyterium ( i.e., undressing room) of the men's public baths was the primary entrance composed of a large changing room with seating and shelves for clothing.

The parallel grooves (strigilature) of the ceiling serve to avoid the formation of drips and dispersion of heat.

Baths of the Forum: cipollino marble fountain at the rear of the men's apodyterium. Cipollino marble, quarried on the southwest coast of the Greek island Euboea, was exported to Rome from 1st c. BC.

Cipolino marble has a white-green base, with thick wavy green ribs, held together by strata of mica.

Casa di Galba: Opus Incertum (irregular work) - Ancient Roman construction technique using irregularly shaped and randomly placed uncut stones or fist-sized tuff blocks and cement.

Opus Incertum was used from the beginning of the 2nd century BC until the mid-1st century BC, it was later largely superseded by opus reticulatum (diamond shape bricks resembling a net).

Entrance wall (right) - Opus reticulatum ("net work"), a form of brickwork in ancient Roman architecture with diamond-shaped bricks of tuff, placed around a core of cement, forming a net-like pattern.

Casa dei due Atri entrance to atrium area with impluvium (pool) visible on the ground.

Opus mixtum ("mixed work") was an ancient Roman construction technique consisting of a mix of opus reticulated ("net work") and at the angles and the sides of opus latericium ("brick work").

Opus latericium was the dominant form of wall construction in the Imperial era (historiography defined as 27 BC to AD 284; archaeologically defined as AD 1 to AD 375).

Casa dei due Atri was built in the Augustan Age, 43 BC to AD 18. Shown here the atrium area, with a pavement and impluvium pool faced with cocciopesto, is divided by four tall brick pillars.

Cocciopesto - known also as Opus signinum - is a building material used in ancient Rome. It is made of tiles broken up into a very small pieces, mixed with mortar, and then beaten down with a rammer.

Fresco with two fish and two pears crossed in the triclinium (formal dining room) of the Casa dei due Atri.

Casa dei due Atri second atrium features this cocciopesto pool decorated with strips of polychrome marble set around a central slot that once housed a fountain statue. On the edge is a marble puteal

Casa dei due Atri: In this Roman house the walls of the tablinium (the office in a Roman house) were richly decorated with fresco pictures. The next two picture detail and refurbish this one.

The Tablinium is a room generally situated on one side of the atrium and opposite to the entrance. The tablinum was the the father's centre for business, where he would receive his clients. It was also used as a reception room for the house master.

Casa dei due Atri: The candelabra supports an elegant vase and a frieze on white ground features a dolphin eating a fish.

Casa dei due Atri: The candelabra supports an elegant vase and a frieze on white ground features an eel eating a crab.

The College of Augustales: A privileged civic order, which was occupied with the imperial cult, made up largely of rich freedmen. The central skylight enables the main hall to be flooded by light.

Augustales Chapel: The base of the walls was covered with large marble slabs (see left bottom); on top, architectural decorations of the Fourth Style with images alluding to imperial greatness.

Augustales Chapel: The Herculaneum guidebook states the small pillar near the back wall must have borne an image of Augustus, so I placed one that I found from 18 A.D. that is in the Vatican Museum.

Above the statue is a representation of the civic crown bestowed on the Emperor, hanging between two griffin.

Augustales Chapel: On the left side of the rear (center) wall a candelabra structure with a peacock sitting on top.

On the left wall of the Augustales Chapel, a Fourth Style fresco shows Hercules seated, with Minerva and Juno or Hebe; in the background is a rainbow, the symbol of Jupiter.

The Fourth Style of wall painting became established after the earthquake of 62 A.D. and is a continuation of the Third Style of painting but more elaborate and complex in manner.

The right wall of the Augustales Chapel shows the contest between Hercules and Acheloos for the hand of Deianira (who is shown in the background).

From the broken horn of Acheloos, the horn of plenty was created, bestowed open-handedly by the Roman Emperors.

Detail of the Augustales Chapel wall showing the goddess of victory, Nike, the divine charioteer who flew above battlefields and gave glory to the victors. The Romans called her Victoria.

Detail of the stucco decoration of the intrados (lower or inner curve) of the four-sided arch at the entrance to the Forum, with reclining young satyr.

Rosette design on of the four-sided arch at the entrance to the Forum.

Casa Del Colonnato Tuscanico: Upper and middle section of wall fresco. The following three pictures highlight details of these walls.

These walls are decorated in the Third Style of fresco that was developed between 20 BC and 40-50 AD and features a wall divided into three sections: the dado (lower part of the wall, below waist height), the middle section and the upper section.

Casa Del Colonnato Tuscanico: Demeter, the Greek goddess of Agriculture was often depicted with the cornucopia overflowing with fruit. The cornucopia symbolized the never-ending supply of sustenance.

Casa Del Colonnato Tuscanico: Drapery and garland motif in the upper area of the wall design and a mythological theme in the middle area.

Casa Del Colonnato Tuscanico: Hercules (with club) delivers the cattle of Geryon to Eurystheus of Argos, who sacrificed the herd to the goddess Hera. [Refurbished via Adobe Photoshop]

According to the legend of Hercules, while he was at Rhegium (today’s Reggio Calabria located on the tip of the toe of mainland Italy), a bull got loose and jumped into the sea. The bull swam to Sicily and then made its way to the neighboring country. The native word for bull was "italus," and so the country came to be named after the bull, and was called Italy.

View of the Decumanus Maximus from the end of the Forum (west end).

Bottega del Plumbarius: At the moment of the eruption of Vesuvius, this was a metal shop. A nielloed bronze statue of "Bacchus with Panther" was found here, as it was being repaired at the time.

Casa del Salone Nero: A broad entrance portal features the carbonized remains of the jamb and the door.

Casa del Salone Nero: Through the entrance vestibule you enter the atrium with a central marble pool and a limestone pluteal. The area is paved in cocciopesto.

Casa del Salone Nero: Portico paved with mosaic of black tesserae (i.e., small blocks of black stones) bordered by a double white band.

Casa del Salone Nero Perisyle: a continuous porch formed by a row stuccoed brick pillars with Doric capitals surrounding the perimeter of the courtyard.

Casa del Salone Nero: Detail of a wall fresco.

Casa del Salone Nero: Detail of fresco with architectural scene with animals and architectural designs.

Bottega di Generi Alimentari (Foodshop): Connected to the Casa di Nettuno e Anfitrite, we see a cooking hob (with grate), the split-level gallery, and the carbonized wood shelves for the amphorae.

The amphorae leaning against the wall on the right were used for storing and pouring wine.

Bottega di Generi Alimentari: The amphora has two expansive handles joining the shoulder of the body and a long neck and were used to store food, and drink, mostly wine.

Amphorae with a pointed base allowed for upright storage by embedding in soft ground, such as sand, and for concentrated deposits from liquids with suspended solid particles, such as olive oil and wines.

The Casa Di Neptune E Anfitrite was a two-story home. It features an outdoor triclinium (dining room) with a brilliantly colored mosaic of Neptune and his nereid wife, Amphitrite.

Amphitrite, Salacia to Romans, married Neptune after being persuaded by Delphinus, the dolphin king, that her steadiness would balance Neptune's volatility and bring harmony in the sea and joy to all.

The mosaic is on blue ground, framed with sea shells, portraying a tabernacle in which we can see the standing figures of Neptune and Amphitrite.

Birds fly around the garden and sit on the bird bath in this fresco painted on the right of the Neptune and Amphitrite mosaic. (I repaired some of the fissures to improve the continuity of the image.)

The floral fresco on the left of the Neptune and Amphitrite mosaic was totally disjointed; but using some of its elements I reconstructed and created this impressionist-type image.

In the oecus (principle hall and dining room) of the Casa Di Neptune E Anfitrite is this elegant mosaic nymphaeum, i.e., a monument consecrated to the nymphs, especially those of spring.

Atop the Casa Di Neptune E Anfitrite nymphaneum is this marble theatrical mask of Maenad, a female follower of Dionysus. As Baccus was the equivalent Roman god, the women were called Bacchae .

Often the maenads (or bacchae) were portrayed as inspired by Dionysus into a state of ecstatic frenzy through a combination of dancing and intoxication.

Also atop the Casa Di Neptune E Anfitrite nymphaneum were two marble theatrical masks of an old man, functioning as acroterion (an ornament mounted on the corner).

Casa Di Neptune E Anfitrite: High on the wall, above the nymphaneum, was a mask of Pan who ruled over shepherds, hunters and rustic music; worship of Pan centered in nature, often in caves or grottos.

The nymphaeum is decorated in mosaic with polychrome vegetable motifs on a ground of Egyptian blue, and festoons with peacocks and deer pursued by hounds.

The sides of the base of the nymphaeum are framed with sea shells. It has an arched central niche housing a statue base, and two rectangular niches on the sides.

Baths of the Forum Women's Section: Changing room (apodyterium) features concrete seating, a shelve area above, and a white mosaic pavement bordered by a double black band.

Privately owned slaves, or one hired at the baths, called a casparius, would look after belongings in the apodyterium while citizens enjoyed the pleasures of the baths.

Changing room: Triton with an oar resting on his right shoulder and a wriggling fish in his left hand. Around him are a Cupid with whip, an octopus, a cuttlefish and four dolphins.

View from above of the floor of the apodyterium of the Baths of the Forum Women's Section.

Baths of the Forum Women's Section (apodyterium): Cuttlefish below Triton on the mosaic floor.

Baths of the Forum Women's Section (apodyterium): Octopus below Triton and left of the cuttlefish on the mosaic floor.

Baths of the Forum Women's Section: Tepidarium (warm bathroom), was a rectangular room with stalls around the walls, a white-ground mosaic, with a labyrinth motif, picked out in black.

The tepidarium is the warm (tepidus) bathroom of the Roman baths heated by a hypocaust or underfloor heating system.

Baths of the Forum Women's Section - Tepidarium: in the center of each of the squares of the labyrinth design are symbols, e.g., this wheel-like figure.

Baths of the Forum Women's Section - Tepidarium: in the center of each of the squares of the labyrinth design are symbols, e.g., this bird-like image.

Baths of the Forum Women's Section - Tepidarium: Posiedon's trident in the center of the square of the labyrinth mosaic design.

Casa Sannitica: The great portal, with Corinthian-Italic capitals in tuff leads into the vestibule. Tuff is a soft rock formed of compacted volcanic ash, sometimes including pumice and scoria.

I found it ironic that Herculaneum used tuff, a volcanic-ash-based material for its buildings and then was destroyed by a volcano.

Casa Sannitica: The vestibule is decorated with a well preserved wall decoration of the First Style painted in different colors and raised using stucco to imitate marble blocks.

First Style fresco painting was most popular from 200 BC until 80 BC.

Casa Sannitica: First Style wall fresco was referred to as well preserved but I thought it necessary to refurbish it so that I might see it as it looked in the first century.

Casa Sannitica atrium paved in cocciopesto with rows of tesserae of white mosaic. In the center is the marble pool of the impluvium into which the rainwater was channeled.

Also visible is the rear wall of the atrium with a large window of the tablinium and the upper loggia.

Casa di Sannitica: Wall painting - detail of two deer.

Casa Sannitica: The tablinium behind the atrium paved in cocciopesto decorated in white mosaic with a panel of diamonds, set within a square at the corners of which are palmettes between two dolphins.

The whole is bordered by a double meander-style band.

Casa Sannitica: Viewed from above, the tablinium floor designed with palombino (white) marble with diamond (lozenge) shaped sections.

Casa Sannitica: In Greek mythology, Zues (Jupiter) transformed into a bull and carried Europa off from Phoenicia to Crete. There she bore him three sons, one of which was Minos, ruler of Crete.

Casa del Tramezzo di Legno atrium with a table for offerings in white limestone and the marble pool of the impluvium; within the basin is a small column, which probably originally held a statue.

Casa dell Erma di Bronzo: Herculaneum workers preparing the building in which a bronze helmet of the owner was found from the Claudian age (A.D. 14-68).

Bronze bust displayed in the Casa dell Erma di Bronzo.

Casa Dell'Atrio A Mosaico: The pavement of the vestibule, which forms a single mosaic whole with that of the atrium is of white-black mosaic in squares of interwoven bands with varied motifs.

Toward the back, to the atrium, is the checkered mosaic pavement deformed (undulated) by the weight of the volcanic material, and the pool of the marble impluvium.

View from above the ancient beach, the arcaded structures (fornici) at ground level supporting the sacred enclosure of Venus and the Palaestra of the Suburban Baths, with monument to M. Nonius Balbus.

The Suburban Baths: You enter the Baths from a rectangular courtyard serving as a palaestra with the monument to Augustan Age senator, M. Nonius Balbus, erected on the site where his body was cremated

Suburban Bath courtyard (palaestra): As part of the monument (cenotaph) to M. Nonius Balbus, there are two sleeping marble cupids (one seen here) holding torches head downwards.

The Suburban Baths: This section of fresco is an example of the damage to walls from over 2,000 years of wear and the Vesuvius eruption.

The Suburban Baths: I refurbished this vase from the previous wall fresco section to see what it might have looked like to the free citizens of Herculaneum as they walked through the Suburban Baths.

The Fornici: These vaulted spaces were the port warehouses (and used to shelter boats) located on the beach and contained 300 human skeletons of residents attempting to flee the eruption in 79 A.D.

Fornici: The people were killed by the heat of the first surge of scorching clouds of toxic smoke and ash traveling at a speed of over 60 miles per hour at a temperature of around 400 degrees.

Fornici: From analysis of Herculaneum people via the skeletons - there were more men than women, only 30% children and 10% older people; men stood 5'2", women 5'.

Half the population showed signs of having performed heavy labor. Almost exclusively the males used their front teeth as working tools, possibly in relation to activities connected with fishing. The diet was prevalently vegetarian, completed with dairy products and fish.

Casa Dei Cervi belonged to Q. Granius Verus, an important resident of Herculaneum; it is built on an axis giving it the best possible exposure towards the superb panorama over the Gulf of Naples.

Casa Dei Cervi: Marble statue of a satyr with a wineskin used as a fountain in the garden.

Casa Dei Cervi: Marble statue of Hercules drunk used as a fountain in the garden.

Casa dei Cervi: Two marbles statues facing each other (closer than as actually presented) showing stag attacked by hounds in the garden.

Casa dei Cervi: Basket of Fruit - fresco on the wall of the cryptoportico surrounding the garden.

A cryptoportico is a covered corridor or passageway built as a semi-subterranean gallery whose vaulting supports portico structures aboveground and which is lit from openings at the tops of its arches.

Casa dei Cervi: Design on the wall of the cryptoportico surrounding the garden.

Casa dei Cervi: Basket of Figs and Walnuts - fresco on the wall of the cryptoportico surrounding the garden.

Themopolium: The L-shaped counter, enclosing eight large terracotta jars for food and drinks, is still perfectly preserved. At the end are small shelves to hold drinking vessels.

Thermopolium: Three of the eight large terracotta jars (dolia) to hold food and drink. At the back of this room was another where people ate.

Casa del Gran Portale: The entry is adorned with the reutilized Republican capitals of grey tuff decorated with winged Victories.

Casa Del Gran Portale: The tuff capitals were repositioned after the earthquake of 62 AD. Here is the best of the two winged female genies carved on the tuff capitals of the entry columns.

Casa del Gran Portale: Fresco of Bird with Cherries

Casa del Gran Portale: Third Style fresco wall painting in the diaeta (i.e., an apartment used for dining and for other purposes of life).

A diaeta appears to have been smaller than the triclinium. Diaeta is also the name given to rooms containing three or four bed-chambers (cubicula).

Casa del Gan Portale: Marble floor design surrounded by a three-wide band of black and then white marble tesserae.

Corso Resina, a nearby street in modern Ercolano (Herculaneum), Italy.

The Herculaneum ruins were visible across the street from our room window in the Heruclaneum Hotel & Maison, 230, 80056 Ercolano NA, Italy. The Hotel food was beyond excellent.

Special breakfast cake called Sfogliatella, which is baked daily on the premises, with sugared coffee design made by the wonderful kitchen staff at the Herculaneum Hotel and Maison.